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Background
The socio-cultural approach which frames the project suggests that mental functioning
of an individual has its origins in social life. This position stresses the role which
communication through language and other semiotic systems plays in learning and points to
the importance of creating classroom environments which support the communication and
exchange of ideas. This view of learning focuses on the idea that students will become
"engaged in learning by participating in communities where learning is valued"
(Greeno et. al., 1996, p 26).
Another implication of socio-cultural theory is the claim that human action is mediated
by 'technical' and 'cognitive tools'. The notion of 'tools' includes a wide range of
artefacts and semiotic systems and where "cultural artefacts are both material and
symbolic; they regulate interactions with one's environment and oneself. In this respect
they are 'tools' broadly conceived, and the master tool is language" (Cole &
Engestrom, 1993, p. 9). Perkins (1993) talks about the importance of considering the
person plus the immediate physical and social resources outside the person, whereas
Salomon (1993) argues that it is important to consider both the effects-with and the
effects-of technology. In all, this suggests that both interaction and its contexts
are central to understanding the conditions for human learning.
Students are active constructors of new knowledge and understanding based on what they
already know and believe. These existing conceptions derive from experiences both outside
and inside school. However, it is important here not to confuse this theory of knowing
with a theory of teaching. Whereas it may be appropriate for teachers to use a range of
strategies from telling to discovery, whatever strategy the teacher uses students will
actively try to make sense of the classroom situation.
There are two contrasting ways of dealing with the notion of students as individual
epistemic subjects. One is to attempt to individualise the curriculum and the other is to
capitalise on the notion of distributed intelligence (Salomon, 1993) and work with the
whole class in the overt co-construction of knowledge in which individual and collective
knowledge is brought into the open and developed through collective enterprise. New
technologies are being harnessed to support both ways of working; socio cultural theory
would suggest that individualised learning packages can only be effective if they are
incorporated into a more socially-shared discussion of knowledge between pupils and
pupils, pupils and teachers and teachers and teachers (Wood et.al. 1999).
We are also concerned to support students to develop creative approaches to solving
problems. The conditions which support creative work include focusing attention on a
problematic area in a domain, knowledge of an interrelated set of concepts within a
domain, and stimulation and feedback from peers (Csikszentmihalyi & Sawyer, 1995).
Given this background the aims related to this research theme focussed on the process of
teaching and learning as well as learning outcomes.
Aims related to the links between teaching and learning
with ICT were:
- to investigate the nature and extent of the dialogue between teachers and students in
the learning settings;
- to investigate the relationship between the teacher's focus on what is to be learned
through talk, gesture and the use of shared communication systems (such as the
white-board);
- to investigate the ways in which teachers draw upon what students bring to the learning
situation with respect to both knowledge about ICT and subject-related knowledge;
- to characterise the nature of the teaching and problem situations which engage students;
- to investigate the relationship between pedagogies and different students across
subject areas and sectors.
Aims related to learning outcomes were:
- to identify learning outcomes with respect to the implicit assumptions and explicit
objectives of the designed teaching and learning initiatives;
- to investigate the effects - with (ie what students can achieve with technology) and the
effects - of (ie the residue left after the experience of using technology) using digital
technologies in the classroom;
- to investigate the capabilities learners need to develop in order to obtain the maximum
benefit from ICT tools;
- to investigate the problem solving processes which students mobilise (to include a focus
on creativity);
- to investigate students' competencies with literacy/communication and
numeracy/application of number across subject domains;
- to relate the above to issues of gender, ethnicity and class.
Methods
The research related to evaluating teaching and learning was based on the work of
the participating teachers and students in their 'design' classes. All subject design
teams started work in May/June 2001.
Data collection - Using Video
In order to capture the dynamic interaction between teacher and students, and students and students, and students and technology digital video
cameras were. The video data was viewed in real time and passages
identified for more detailed analysis using categories which were developed from both
theory and data. In order to explore the learning dimension of what students have been
doing we developed conjectures from our analysis and played back critical episodes
of video data. The video and computer based textual record was therefore both a
source of data and a stimulus for reflective discussion with teachers. Members of the subject-based design teams (researchers or teacher/researchers) also carried out structured observations in
participating teacher's classrooms. The framework for analysing this data
included focusing on: the dialogue between teacher and students; the teacher's use of the
white-board and other mechanisms for drawing attention to particular ideas; and the
engagement of students in the subject being learned and with the technology.
Our theoretical perspective implies that learning is closely related to
activity and the cognitive and cultural tools which are harnessed within this activity
(Wertsch, 1991). Thus our focus of analysis was on the nature of the activity
and the interactions between the students and the computer environment.
With respect to learning and learning outcomes we collected data for all students
who are part of the 'design' classes. In addition we focussed in particular on 6 students from each
design class (chosen to represent a spread of ability, ethnicity and social class).
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